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EVALUATING VIDEO: |
| CONTENTS |
| 1. INTRODUCTION |
Compared with the use of print materials and audio cassettes, video is a relatively new medium for English language teaching. Because the visual element can be presented along with the linguistic features, it is a means of adding a further dimension to the audio and print-based media traditionally used (J. Willis, 1983b: 43) and is now an accepted part of standard classroom practice (Motteram and Slaouti, 1997a: 31).
| 2. PURPOSES FOR USING VIDEO |
The use of video is compatible with a communicative methodology which aims to develoPlearners' speaking, listening, reading and writing skills, as well as their understanding of the social, economic, political and cultural backgrounds of the target language countries and cultures (Hill, 1989:1). Many courses now take a theme-based approach and video can be used to supplement and enhance the means and materials in a number of ways:
Present, exemplify, consolidate and revise language.
Video can expose the learners to authentic, or at the very least, realistic language, used in context (D. Willis, 1983:24; J. Willis, 1983b: 45; Allan, 1985:19). This might be structural, functional or lexical items, or features of pronunciation. It can also be used to elicit specific language items that are not explicitly used in the video extract, but which are suggested or shown.
Stimulate freer oral and written production of language.
Video can be used as a means of providing input for a freer classroom speaking or writing activity, such as discussing an issue, letter writing or storytelling (D. Willis, 1983:25; J. Willis, 1983b:45; Allan, 1985:20-21; Hill, 1989:20).
Stimulate interest and motivate the learners.
Ideally, the learners should have a genuine interest in the content of the medium through which they are exposed to the target language. It has been suggested that by generating interest and motivation, video can foster a climate for successful language learning and acquisition (Lonergan, 1984:5; Tudor, 1987:204).
Develop listening skills.
Video can be used to develop effective listening strategies (J. Willis, 1983:45; Allan, 1985,49). These enable learners to do what native speakers would do: that is, take a top-down approach to listening, by making inferences from what they hear. This allows them to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of what they are listening to, rather thanattempt to process every word (Brown and Yule, 1983:57). When using video to develoPlistening skills, off-air materials might be more appropriate than commercially produced ELT video for learners of intermediate and higher levels of proficiency, since they will be dealing with the kind of language they will have to cope with in real life communication outside the classroom (Motteram and Slaouti, 1997c:47).
Familiarise learners with the culture(s) of the target language.
Video can provide insights into the cultural context(s) of the target language as well as focussing learners' attention on aspects of their own culture(s). It can be used as a means of examining and comparing patterns of everyday life, cultural behaviour and patterns of communication and for exploring cultural values and attitudes (Tomalin and Stempleski, 1993). Tudor (1987:205) argues that only authentic materials should be used for the purposes of cultural familiarisation, since not only is the language natural and ungraded, but preconceptions concerning the target language culture are implicitly presented in context. Lonergan (1984:86) suggests that documentaries and discussions are particularly useful sources for presenting the culture of the target language.
Exemplify paralinguistic features and extralinguistic information.
As Hill (1989:3) points out, video is unique in that it can expose learners to visual references that communicate meaning in their own right: Gestures, facial expression, eye contact, body language and proximity all reflect the culture of the people communicating, and can transmit information about the attitudes of the participants, their social status, their relationships with one another and their intentions. Appearance and setting are additional visual elements that convey extralinguistic information about the participants and socially appropriate behaviour (Allan, 1985:68-69).
Various authors have suggested that video can be used for different purposes according to the linguistic level of the learners it is used with. Jane Willis (1983:45) and Allan (1985:73) both suggest that video should be used to present and consolidate language with elementary level learners, while it is more appropriate to use it as a stimulus for freer language production with more advanced levels. However, as Hill (1989:4) points out, there is nothing in the video material itself that demands that it be used for a particular purpose. Most materials lend themselves to a variety of uses, given appropriate exploitation by the teacher.
| 3. ACCEPTED GOOD PRACTICE FOR USING VIDEO |
There are a number of issues pertaining to accepted good practice for using video in the classroom, for the purposes of teaching general English. These will be considered in relation to the video extract itself and the tasks in the print materials that usually accompany commercially produced video for ELT.
3.1.1 Interest and motivation
Video can reflect the learners' interests, which may be anything from the armed forces to zoology. Motteram and Slaouti (1997c:10) point out that off-air materials are intrinsically motivating, as they are intended to entertain 'real' audiences. Arcario (u/d:118) suggests that universal themes, such as human relationships, may be successfully used in a variety of contexts. Learners who are interested in learning English survival skills might well be equally motivated by ELT videos, which expose them to contexts, such as 'at the doctors' or 'checking into and out of a hotel'.
3.1.2 ELT versus authentic materials
In general, materials produced specifically for ELT are scripted, and designed to present realistic language in context. They may be part of a coursebook package or standalone materials. In either case, they will most likely be designed around a structural language syllabus and most are designed to be used with learners at elementary and intermediate levels of proficiency (Motteram and Slaouti, 1997b:24). The video package may also include a viewing guide, a workbook for learners, a teacher's guide, transcripts of the video and audio cassettes (Stempleski, u/d:8-9). Authentic video materials include off-air recordings of television broadcasts, as well as commercially produced videos (films and informational videos produced by public and private enterprise). Most authentic materials will also be scripted and edited, but because they have been produced for native speakers, the language is not graded. Learners are exposed to unsimplified, possibly idiomatic language, delivered at normal speed by people who may speak with regional accents (Stempleski, u/d:9).
The popularity of using off-air materials in the language-learning classroom is well documented (MacKnight, 1983:3; Stempleski, u/d:7). There is, however, a suspicion that many institutions use this material unadapted for use with foreign language learners, choosing instead to press the play button and allow learners to watch long sequences, or even whole films, since the adaptation of such materials for classroom use is extremely time consuming and demanding on the teacher. Video materials consisting of short extracts of off-air broadcasts that can be incorporated into a theme-based curriculum and which are accompanied by ready-to-use classroom activities, would therefore seem to provide the perfect solution, providing authentic material adapted for ELT use. A small number have already been produced, including Television English (Willis, 1986) and ITN World News (Bergman and Meinhof, 1992).
3.1.3 Sound and picture quality
Arcario (u/d:114) notes that poor sound quality is more likely to render a video extract incomprehensible than poor picture quality. Good sound is particularly important when a video is being used to present language; it may not be so important for developing learners' listening comprehension strategies, as they will no doubt have to cope with less than perfect sound in the real world. The other uses of video outlined may actually depend more on the quality of the picture and what is shown, than on the quality of the soundtrack.
3.1.4 Language: content, clarity, rate and density
Materials produced specifically for ELT tend to control all of these factors. The language in off-air materials may be useful for familiarising learners with authentic language but can make such materials difficult to use with lower level language learners (MacKnight, 1983:12). Again, it is important to bear in mind the purposes which the video extract is to serve: incomprehensible language will probably be irrelevant, if using video to consider the dress of the people on screen.
3.1.5 Strong and supportive visual element
As Jane Willis (1983a:29) points out, language learners are more likely to rely on visual clues to support their language comprehension than native speakers. The visual element of video can assist learners in their comprehension, but there may not always be a direct relationshiPbetween the sound and vision and the visuals may sometimes even contradict the message that is heard. This is particularly relevant to off-air materials, where consideration may not be given to the issue of verbal/visual congruence. While disparity is something that could be exploited in the tasks, we would normally look for video materials where the visuals support the meaning. Allan (1985:23) argues that this is particularly important with elementary level learners, while at intermediate level and above, it may sometimes be desirable to use video with less visual support, in order to increase the challenge of understanding the verbal message.
3.1.6 Length of extract
Although there is no one recommended optimal length for video extracts, most authors seem to agree that short extracts are better than longer ones (cf. Tudor, 1987). MacWilliam (1986:134) suggests that using shorter extracts is compatible with what is known about how efficiently listeners retain information from broadcast television. Shorter extracts also have the advantage that they can be viewed several times and can therefore be exploited more thoroughly than a longer piece of video. For beginners and low-intermediate learners, extracts of between thirty seconds and two minutes have been suggested (J. Willis, 1983b:45; Hill, 1989:2) while it is thought that advanced learners can manage slightly longer extracts of between four and twelve minutes (J. Willis, 1983b:45). In general, four minutes has been cited as a reasonable viewing length (McGovern, 1983:59; Lonergan, 1984:2).
3.2.1 Active viewing
It has been noted that since television is mainly associated with entertainment, many learners will come to the classroom with passive viewing habits (Hill, 1989:6). It is therefore important to promote active viewing by establishing tasks for the learner to do, so that they have a purpose for viewing the video. Techniques which encourage the learners to view actively include silent viewing, viewing with sound only, jigsaw viewing and jumbled viewing (Allan, 1985:40-45; Stempleski, u/d:13-22).
3.2.2 Task difficulty
Stempleski (u/d:11) stresses the importance giving the learners tasks that challenge them. Hill (1989:9) points out the level of difficulty involved in answering even the most straightforward comprehension question: The learners must first understand the question. Then, they must search for and recognise the language items in the video. They must also understand the language items, which then have to be stored in their short-term memories or written down. Finally, this information has to be expressed with the correct use of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, perhaps in front of the learners' peers. It is therefore essential that the tasks accompanying the video extract should not be too difficult, so that the learners have opportunities for success. As Lonergan (1984:75) points out, the role of the tasks is to be formative, rather than summative and so their aim should be to guide, not test. Alternatives to comprehension questions should be considered and thought given as to how they can best be presented: orally or in print; in the mother tongue or in the target language.
3.2.3 Holistic viewing
It is believed that we store meaning in chunks. Details are remembered in terms of their relationships to the overall or global message. With respect to video, this means that the learners will probably remember the visuals more than the language and the gist of the language more than the linguistic details. They may remember the occasional lexical item, but the grammar and the phonological features will most probably be forgotten. Promoting holistic viewing involves giving learners the opportunity to watch the video extract in its entirety, whilst undertaking a viewing task that will lead them to establish the context, the setting, the participants and understanding the global message, rather than the linguistic details. One way of doing this is by asking 'minimal questions': Who? What? Where? The learners then watch the video without interruption, perhaps with the sound off, in order to speculate on the global meaning of the extract. Very often, tasks attempt to milk the video extract for every last detail, both in terms of linguistic detail and comprehension. Tudor (1987:204) argues that more extensive viewing allows learners to approach video more authentically, like native speakers would.
3.2.4 Supporting the learners in their understanding
It is the linguistic rather than the visual element that is going to cause the learners most difficulty. Even at advanced levels of proficiency, they will be restricted in their linguistic repertoire and although the lexis and grammar might be familiar, learners might not be able to process the language fast enough to keePuPwith the soundtrack or understand the language at discourse level. As well as experiencing difficulties with the language, they may also lack the cultural knowledge that is assumed to be understood by the viewer.
Therefore, tasks should provide adequate preparation for viewing, by assisting the learners in their understanding the text and the cultural elements conveyed in the video. Pre-viewing tasks can be set that activate the knowledge learners already have and which compensate for any gaps in their knowledge of the topic, setting and language used in the video. Essentially, these will involve the learners discussing the topic and setting and speculating about the content: what they will see and what language and other sounds they will hear, and providing some sort of input, such as key lexis or a text to provide learners with information around the topic area (see Stoller, u/d:27-30 for a number of previewing activities that would lend themselves to use with a variety of videos).
3.2.5 Appropriate exploitation of the visual element
Video involves a visual element. Therefore, it is appropriate that it is exploited in tasks which involve the learners focussing on the visual component of the video extract. However, not all the tasks need do this. Some may involve the learners mainly viewing, some may involve them mainly listening and some may require them to do both. However, as Allan (1985:37) points out, the simultaneous intake of both visual and verbal information is extremely complex and demanding. MacWilliam (1986:132) cites research into the role of television in the first language development of young children, that might suggest that when second language learners are asked to simultaneously focus on both the verbal and the visual channels, the visual channel will override the other. One way to lighten the load on learners is to use the technique of silent viewing, which gives them the opportunity to focus on and process the visual information before having to cope with the verbal message.
Tasks that involve learners doing a lot of reading and writing will take their attention away from the screen. One way of avoiding this is to invite them to predict the content of the extract before they view and then simply ask them to 'watch and check'. They could then review their ideas after viewing.
3.2.6 Follow-up activities
When video is used as part of an integrated communicative methodology, it is important that viewing is followed on by tasks that link it with other areas of language learning and where possible, with the learners' own needs and interests (Lonergan, 1984:56). Appropriate activities could involve learners expressing their opinions on issues presented on video, or carrying out roleplays similar to the situations they have seen, or performing tasks which involve relating the content of the video to the real world around them (see Stoller, u/d: 32-34 for a review of useful follow-uPtasks).
3.2.7 Clear guidance for the teacher and learners
In order to work successfully with video in the classroom, it must be clear to both the teacher and to the learners what is required and at what stage. Ideally, the rubric for the tasks should be clear and unambiguous or guidance, in the form of notes for the teacher or a separate teacher's guide, should be available. A transcript of the video is now considered to be an important part of the video package and some tasks may even call for the learners to work with the transcript after viewing.
3.2.8 Variation of task type
In order to maintain interest there should be a degree of variation, in terms of the types of task that are set for the learners. This however, needs to be tempered with restraint, since constant changes of task type may confuse the learners as to what is required.
3.2.9 Explicit statement of objectives
Any tasks that accompany the video extract should make clear exactly what objectives they have: what strategies they aim to develop, what kind of understanding it is hoped the learners will reach, what skills are to be developed, the language to be acquired, and so on. Not only should this be clear to the teacher, but also to the learners, as it will helPthem outside the classroom to cope with watching television, film or video in the real world.
All these issues relate to accepted good practice for using video in the classroom for the purposes of teaching general English and form the basis for evaluating video. However, in order to fully determine whether or not a particular video package can be used, the context and the purposes for using video in that context also need to be considered.
| 4. CONTEXT FOR EVALUATION |
There are a number of general English courses at upper-intermediate and advanced level. Video materials that can be integrated into the themes explored in the coursebooks used, are currently being sought. The learners are all Danish adults, who have grown uPwith English language television programmes and who have studied English from primary school onwards. In general, they are extremely fluent and enjoy discussing issues that are relevant to their daily lives. They already have well-developed listening and reading skills and although their writing skills are less well developed, this is mainly because the learners themselves prefer to focus on speaking rather than on writing. By this stage, they can generally express themselves well, using quite sophisticated language structures and are looking to develoPtheir use of lexis, particularly current idiomatic expressions. In general, they are interested in learning British rather than other varieties of English, and learning about British culture, compared with their own Danish culture.
The main purposes for using video with the groups of learners described in 4.1 are to:
| 5. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING VIDEO |
In order to use video in the context described above, the following criteria will be applied:
| 6. EVALUATION OF A PIECE OF VIDEO: TELEVISION ENGLISH 4, UNIT 1: SPORTS DAY (Willis, 1986) |
Now over ten years old, Television English is still relatively unique in that it is a commercially produced ELT package consisting of short extracts of off-air materials taken from popular BBC magazine programmes, together with a guide for both teachers and learners.
On the back cover of the book and in her introduction, Willis (ibid:8-16, see appendix 1) makes a number of claims that would suggest that this package meets a large number of the criteria established:
2. The materials are authentic (ibid:8).
4. The video can be used with learners at intermediate level and above (ibid:8).
6. The viewing time varies between one minute and eleven minutes, depending on the extract (ibid:10).
7. The tasks aim to promote active viewing (ibid:9).
8. The materials will challenge the learners, but the tasks provide them with opportunities for success (ibid:8).
11. Pre-viewing activities support learners in their understanding of the video by pre-teaching useful lexis and intrducing background information (ibid:9).
13. There are opportunities to view the extract several times (ibid:8), each time focussing on different elements of the video (ibid:10).
14. Follow-uPactivities provide oral and written work related to the content of the video (ibid:9).
15. The tasks are interesting and varied (ibid:back cover).
17. The units can be integrated into any course (ibid:9).
18. Each unit provides enough material for one or two 50-minute lessons, depending on the activities selected (ibid:10).
19. Guidance for the teacher and learners is provided by means of an answer key and teacher's notes, an on-screen time counter (ibid:5), and transcripts (ibid:12). Instructions are given along with symbols and, where appropriate, time codes and a drawing of what is represented on the screen (ibid:12-13).
20. The package aims to develoPoral fluency (ibid:8), focus on grammatical and lexical items used in modern idiomatic British English (ibid:20 & back cover) and presents aspects of contemporary British life (ibid:back cover).
As the title suggests, Sports Day shows a clip of a primary school sports day, with both children and parents participating in, winning and losing different kinds of races. The content of the video could be described as falling within the human interest category and would probably appeal to a large number of people. As sport plays an important role in Danish culture, and since most of the learners are parents themselves, it seems likely the content will generate interest among the learners described.
The video extract is from That's Family Life, a BBC magazine programme that looks at issues concerning the family. As a piece of authentic television, it was produced for a native speaker audience and the language is a mixture of scripted questions and commentary from the off-screen presenter, and unscripted, but edited, authentic language from the interviewees. As a piece of broadcast material, the picture quality is good and the sound quality of the original is reasonably good. The interviews were conducted on location and there is quite a lot of background noise for the viewers to contend with. However, advanced level learners should be able to cope without too much difficulty.
In terms of level, the language should be comprehensible to learners with a good intermediate level of English. There are frequent conversational turns and the interviewees respond to the questions using natural speech features, such as hesitation devices, repetition, ellipsis and ungrammatical sentences. Although the presenter is off-screen the whole time, her speech is clear and delivered at a manageable pace. Although some of the interviewees speak quite quickly, there are frequent pauses which reduce the density of language.
The extract consists of short interviews with parents and children, during which head shots fill the screen, interspersed with footage of the races which supports the verbal message of the talking heads. Even with the sound off, it would be possible to interpret the video sequence, for example, when the little girl loses the race and is then seen crying, the viewer be able to guess that she is going to tell the interviewer that she does not like sports day.
The video sequence lasts 5 minutes 10 seconds, which given the language density, is quite appropriate to show in one piece. There are also opportunities to chunk the extract into three or four parts, according to the main themes expressed in the sequence.
During the course of the unit (see appendix 2), the learners are invited to view the extract five times. Each time, they are given a purpose for viewing: to identify parts in the sequence (ibid:20), to answer comprehension questions (ibid:22-23), to find out how many times and for what purposes a particular lexical item is used (ibid:24) and to check their answers (ibid:20 & 27).
Many of the tasks set would challenge native speakers, not because of the linguistic difficulty, but in terms of problem solving difficulty (see for example, the task in which learners are asked to identify the parts in the sequence. Ibid: 20). There are also a number of activities which do not have discrete answers and invite the learners to participate in them at their own level (see for example, the class debate. Ibid:30). These kinds of tasks offer the learners opportunities for success, either because they are open or because they do not rely on a certain level of linguistic proficiency. In fact, the tasks which do focus on language would probably be under-challenging for most learners at upper-intermediate level and above (see for example, the language focus tasks, Ibid:23-28).
There are comprehension questions included in the print materials, but there are also alternative kinds of tasks for viewing the extract: identifying sequences in the video (ibid:20), recognizing lexis (ibid:24), confirming answers and ideas (ibid:20&27) and using visual prompts (stills) to elicit language (ibid:29).
The initial viewing task (ibid:20) can be described as holistic, in that it involves silent viewing of the entire extract, during which the learners are asked to identify the sections that make uPthe whole.
Willis (ibid:18-21) includes a number of previewing activities that aim to activate the learners' mental schemata and compensate for any lack of knowledge concerning the topic, setting and genre of the extract. Although there is no specific language focus, it is probably unnecessary at this stage.
The task which exploits the visual element the most is the initial silent viewing activity (ibid:20), where the learners watch the extract in its entirety, with nothing to distract them from the visual message. The visuals are also exploited by using them to elicit language that does not actually feature in the sound track (see follow-uPtask 1b. Ibid:29). The activity which does most to take the learners' attention away from the screen is the one in which they are asked to answer a large number of quite detailed comprehension questions (ibid:22-23).
As stated, the tasks give the learners the opportunity to view the whole extract as many as five times, each time with a different task focus. There are also a large number of follow-uPactivities, some of which are appropriate for the classroom, such as the roleplays, debate and discussion (ibid:30-31). The related writing activities could be carried out either in the classroom or as self-study activities (ibid:31-32). The quantity and variety of these activities is a particular strength of these materials, as they provide ample opportunity for selection and personalisation.
The pre-viewing and while-viewing tasks are also varied and while they do not explicitly state their objectives, there is some mention of this in the answer key (ibid: 112). It would, however, appear that this information is directed at the teacher rather than the learners.
The theme of sports day can be linked to the themes in most of the coursebooks used in the context described:
Clearly there is ample material for two 50-minute classes and self-study. Teachers could choose tasks that complement the language needs and interests of their learners.
Despite the usefulness of including symbols, time codes and pictures, the instructions are not always clear, particularly regarding when activities should be carried out. The use of examples is not always consistent and the instructions do not stand out, as they written in the same typeface as the exercises themselves.
The video and accompanying print materials are generally appropriate for the purposes stated for this group of learners, in that they are motivating and generative, with a high cultural content. However, they do not contain the right kind and level of lexical input required for these learners.
| 7. CONCLUSION |
Jane Willis is well known in the area of using video for the purposes of English language teaching. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that Television English (Willis, 1986) fulfills almost all the criteria for evaluation, the only real weaknesses being in the organization of the print materials. Therefore, despite the age of these materials, I would certainly recommend them for the context and purpose outlined and would like to see similar materials produced in the future.
| 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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